Role of Cognitive Therapy in Reducing Human Error

Role of Cognitive Therapy in Reducing Human Error Table of Contents (Jump to) Introduction Cognitive Therapy and Human Error Automatic Subsystem Attentional Subsystem Conclusion Bibliography Q: As a Cognitive psychologist, how could you help reduce human error either at work, on the roads, or at home? Word Count: 1819  ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­_____________________________________________________________________ 1. Introduction Human error is evident is all areas of human involvement, and may differ vastly in terms of the seriousness of the outcome. A typing error, for example, is easily corrected with no harm to anyone; however, an error in a medical procedure may have more damaging consequences for both the patient and the medical practitioner. Reason (2000) identifies two main approaches to human error namely the system approach and the person approaches. The system approach maintains that human error is inevitable, but reviews it as a consequence of larger, systemic problems. The person approach, which is largely the more popular, views error as, arising primarily from aberrant mental processes such as forgetfulness, inattention, poor motivation, carelessness, negligence, and recklessness (Reason, 2000: 768). In his essay, Reason (2000) suggests that there be a movement toward a system approach to human error, arguing that the human condition is not changeable, yet the conditions under which they work a re. The following essay will consider the role of cognitive therapy in reducing human error. Focusing on two main areas of research: cognition and behaviour. This will be followed by a conclusion of findings. 2. Cognitive Therapy and Human Error Aaron Beck is the founder of Cognitive Therapy (CT) and in this approach he proposes that our feelings, thoughts and behaviours are all interlinked, and that thought and behaviour changes, will result in feelings being transformed (Sanders Wills, 2006). Therefore, Cognitive Therapists make use of behavioural experiments and target cognitions in order to bring about cognitive, emotional and behavioural strategies. This understanding of CT and the methods used by Cognitive Therapists becomes increasingly relevant to the theory of human error when considered in the backdrop of The Emerging Model of Cognitions presented by Panko (1997). The Emerging Model of Cognitions (Panko, 1997) highlights the interplay between three subsystems, namely: the automatic subsystem, the attentional subsystem and the environment, and each of these systems impact on the cultivation and execution of a plan. The automatic subsystem includes schemata (sets of information and response patterns) that are below the level of consciousness. These schemata are triggered by a specific stimulus, which elicits a patterned response. Panko (1997) gives the example of speech, which involves a number of complex processes, or schemata, which we are not conscious of, but results in the patterned response of speech. Error will sometimes occur when a situation arises for which there is no existing patterned response (schemata). In such a situation, a schema that has been activated in a similar situation is then activated, resulting in occasional error. The second subsystem described by Panko (1997) is the attentional subsystem. This subsystem involves log ical and attentional thought, which, like the automatic subsystem, is also built on schematic organisation. According to Panko (1997) error rooted in the attentional subsystem can be largely attributed to lay theories. This researcher explains that, Even after people receive training in specific areas, such as physics, they often revert to lay theories afterward†¦lay theories are schemata that we have developed over many years. They are very likely to produce errors when we model situations (Planko, 1997: ¶16). Finally, the environment is the third subsystem indicated by Planko (1997). According to this researcher, the planning and execution of an action is in constant play with the environment. Plans are fed back to the environment, and are then adjusted accordingly. When the environment is a buzz of information and stimulus, thus confusing the schema, unexpected results can occur. From this model, the following causes of human error can be identified. Firstly, disruption to the automatic subsystem, as a result of the ill matching of schema to an unknown situation. Secondly, disruption to the attentional subsystem, by reverting to lay theories, and finally, the environmental impact, where it is understood as influencing the formation of schema. This model brings to the forefront the idea that, to a large degree, human error can be understood as being rooted in cognitive and behavioral mishaps. Cognitive therapy may be employed to help reduce these errors by tackling the automatic and attentional subsystems presented in the model. 2.1 Automatic Subsystem Cognitive Therapy explains the working of schema, defining it as a relatively enduring, deep cognitive structure that organizes the principles of giving appraisal and meaning to experiences, especially in relation to rules of living, with regards to self, others and the world (Sanders Wills, 2006: 147). An event schema, or cognitive script, involves processes and practices of approach tasks and problems. These ways of processing are behaviorally oriented and triggered by certain stimulus (Scholl, 2002). Such schema are constructed either directly, through repeated a process a number of times, or indirectly through movies, role models and stories (Scholl, 2002). Scholl (2002:  ¶4) identifies two distinct methods of data processing. Data-driven or stimulus-driven processing occurs when no schema exist form which to process information. The individual examines all information and proceeds through a careful decision making process. Schema-driven processing occurs when an individual responds to a stimulus (decision making or problem solving situation) by evoking a programmed response or behavior script (schema). This is done without extensive data collection or analysis. According to Scholl (2002) error is more likely to occur when an individual has a rigid schema. In this instance, an individual, despite the in information provided, uses the same schema to respond to similar situations and no longer makes a distinction between them. The results in inaccurate decision making and errors occur. Such error can be seen to occur, for example, on the road. An individual with a rigid schema may have his or her problem solving diminished when confronted by a faulty traffic light. Instead of considering the unique information, he or she responds as if it where a normal functioning light, resulting in an accident. Cognitive therapy, by means of schema therapy and challenging core beliefs attempts to loosen and change some of the enduring schema. 2.2 Attentional Subsystem As previously described, disruption to the attentional subsystem occurs when a person reverts their attention to a particular thought. From this it can be understood that, despite having a variety of options available, thinking because inflexible and rigid. A person may even be said to have become fixated. One such lay theory may be seen in the form of excessive worry. Worry is a type of negative intrusive thought, which tends to distract the worrier from the task at hand. For example, a person new to their job, having undergone and successfully completed the necessary training, may become anxious on starting their job. This would be further compounded by such worrisome thoughts of, I am not good enough, I know that I will make a mistake, when I make a mistake I will be fired. This talk is the lay theory they have about themselves and their competence. This negative self-talk interferes with the brain processes necessary for completing the task, and error occurs. Shearer and Gordon ( 2006) give reference to a number of cognitive behavioral strategies that can be employed for the reduction of worry, including repeatedly challenging the worry process, experiments of behavioral exposure and mindfulness based meditation. Another approach offered by cognitive therapy for confronting such patterns of thought is that of Attentional Training. Wells and Papageorgiou are the founders of Attentional Training and describe it as a way of decreasing the fixed focus (which is typically self-focus) and allow for more flexibility in thought (Sanders and Wills, 2006). Harvey, Watkins, Mansell, and Shafran (2004: 67) describe the process involved in Attentional Training: The therapy is divided into several stages: The therapist first provides a clear rationale for why reducing or interrupting self-focused processing may aid recovery. The patient is asked to fixate on a visual stimulus (e.g. a mark on the wall) and then to focus attention for several moments on each of a series of different sounds (therapists voice, tapping, clock). The patient is instructed to exclusively focus on each sound alone. The patient shifts their attention rapidly between the sets of sounds. The patient attends simultaneously to all of the sounds, trying to be aware of as many sounds as possible. Through this process a person preoccupied by worrisome thoughts, learns to attend to more than one stimulus, and is thus able to shift there attention when these thoughts arise. Conclusion This essay explored and discussed the phenomenon of human error, the processes involved in human error and the possible negative outcomes when human error occurs. This included a range of problem outcomes, from relatively harmless to far more damaging ones. Two prominent theories of human error where identified, namely the system and person approaches. Working from the person approach, The Emerging Model of Cognition provided a framework from which to consider the role of cognitions in human error. This model highlighted the role of cognitive therapy in helping to reduce human error. Schema Therapy was identified as an effective method for helping to make rigid schema more flexible, thereby freeing the individual to be able to consider a larger variety of options before acting. Attentional Training was identified as a method for approaching unconscious schema in the attentional subsystem. This approach in cognitive therapy trains the individual to attend to more than one stimulus. Th is allows the individual to be less distracted by intrusive thoughts, such as worry, and attend to the task at hand. Cognitive therapy is an increasingly popular option for psychological therapy. Interventions using this approach have shown long lasting effects, and reduce the possibility of relapse. Cognitive therapy has been developed for a large range of problems from panic and anxiety disorders to eating problems and hallucinations. It is also applied in a range of settings from mental health to life coaching (Sanders Wills, 2006). This essay has pointed to two ways in which cognitive therapy can be useful in helping reduce the occurrence of human error. Bibliography Harvey, A., Watkins, E., Mansell, W., Shafran, R. (2004). Cognitive Behavioural Processes Across Psychological Disorders: A transdiagnostic approach to research and treatment. Oxford University Press. Panko, R.R. (1997). Theories of Human Error. Retrieved on March 1st, 2007, from  http://panko.cba.hawaii.edu/HumanErr/Theory.htm. Reason, J. (2000). Human error: Models and management. British Medical Journal,  320, 768-770. Sanders, D., Wills, F. (2006). Cognitive Therapy: An introduction. London: Sage. Scholl, R.W. (2002). Social Cognition and Cognitive Schema. Retrieved on May 3, 2007, from http://www.uri.edu/research/lrc/scholl/Notes/Cognitive_Schema.htm. Shearer, S, Gordon, L. (2006). The patient with excessive worry. American Family Physician, 73, 1045-1056.

The Coca-Cola Company Essay

The Coca-Cola Company (KO) is a beverage company that manufacturer and distribute coke, diet coke and other soft drinks worldwide. The company primarily offers nonalcoholic beverages, including sparkling beverages and still beverages. Its sparkling beverages include nonalcoholic ready-to-drink beverages with carbonation, such as carbonated energy drinks, and carbonated waters and flavored waters. The company’s still beverages comprise nonalcoholic beverages without carbonation, including noncarbonated waters, flavored and enhanced waters, noncarbonated energy drinks, juices and juice drinks, ready-to-drink teas and coffees, and sports drinks. It also provides flavoring ingredients, sweeteners, beverage ingredients, and fountain syrups, as well as powders for purified water products. In addition, the company licenses its technologies to suppliers and third parties. The company is currently employing 130,600 full time employees and is considered being the world leader in the bev erage industry. Financial Review of the company: A. Market value of equity & Book value of equity – Market value of the equity of the company is the current market capitalization rate and it measured through by multiplying current market value of the share into the total number of shares outstanding and he market capitalization of the company as on 2nd October, 2014 is $187.10 billion (source: finance.yahoo=KO=key statistics). While the book value of the equity is the current book value of the company share and it is determined as under: Book value of equity = Total value of the equity / shares outstanding Book value = $7.77 (source: finance.yahoo=KO=key statistics). It is important to note that the book value of the shares of the company has increased from $3.29 per share in 2004 to $7.77 per share uptill now (it was $7.54 per share in the year 2013) B. Market performance – Total Return C. Financial performance review – The financial performance review of the company is as under: Gross profit margin – The gross profit margin of the company was 65.2% as at year 2004 but it has decreased to 60.7% in the year 2013 indicating a decline of 5.5% over this review period. The decrease in the gross profit is due to the increase in the cost of goods sold ratio as  of revenue from 34.78% in the year 2004 to 39.32% in the year 2013. Operating profit margin – The same trend of the decrease in the profitability is noted in the operating profit margin of the company as it has decreased from 25.9% in the year 2004 to 21.8% in the year 2013. This decrease in profitability is an alarming sign for the company as despite the increase in the revenue, the company was not able to generate profitability in the same proportion as that of the increase in the revenue of the company. Payout ratio – The dividend payout has increased from 50% in the year 2004 to 58.8% in the year 2013 indicating higher proportion of income is being paid out to the shareholders of the company Asset turnover – The relative increase in the assets of the company has resulted in decrease of asset turnover as it has decreased from 0.75 times in the year 2004 to 0.53 times in the year 2013 indicating the poor management of assets with respect to revenue generation Return on assets – ROA has also decreased from 16.52% in the year 2004 to 9.74% in the year 2013 due to the decrease in the profitability and increase in the asset base of the company Return on equity (ROE) – ROE of the company has also decreased from 32.29% in the year 2004 to 26.03% in the year 2013 due to the decrease in the profitability of the company Interest coverage ratio – The company first interest coverage ratio was determined in the year 2008 and it was 17.98 times. It has increased to 25.79 times in the year 2013 indicating an improvement in the overall interest coverage of the company. Liquidity of the company – The liquidity of the company as being measured through current and quick ratios is indicating a positive trend as current ratio was 1.10 in the year 2004 and it has increased to 1.13 in the year 2013. On the other hand, quick ratio has increased from 0.81 in the year 2004 to 0.90 in the year 2013. Efficiency of the company – Days Sales Outstanding of the company has increased from 35.42 days in the year 2004 to 37.52 days in the year 2013. Also, the Days Inventory has also increased from 63.84 days in the year 2004 to 64.8 days in the year 2013. Payables Period has decreased tremendously as it has decreased from 199.3 days in the year 2004 to 38.66 days in the year 2013. Cash Conversion Cycle of the company has improved as it has increased from -100.04 days in the year 2004 to 63.66 days in the year 2013. D. References: finance.yahoo. (2nd October). Key Statistics. Retrieved October 2, 2014, from http://finance.yahoo.com/q/ks?s=KO+Key+Statistics Morning Star. (2nd October). Coca-Cola Co KO (Key Ratios & company performance). Retrieved October 2, 2014, from http://financials.morningstar.com/ratios/r.html?t=KO ®ion=usa&culture=en-US

New Ideas Into Argumentative Essay Topics on the Odyssey Never Before Revealed

New Ideas Into Argumentative Essay Topics on the Odyssey Never Before Revealed Details of Argumentative Essay Topics on the Odyssey There are lots of aspects about a sport which can be argued in an essay. You can also see concept essays. Having selected a superior topic to argue about, at this point you need to make an argumentative essay outline. The thesis provides you with a guideline about how to go about with writing the essay. Moral argumentative essay topics are a few of the simplest to get carried away with. An argumentative essay requires you to choose a topic and have a position on it. It is a particular type of academic writing. It is crucial to be aware an argumentative essay and an expository essay could be similar, but they vary greatly concerning the quantity of pre-writing and research involved. Argumentative Essay Topics on the Odyssey The net has made our life a good deal simpler. Internet use by children ought to be censored. 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A Short Note On Galaxy S4 And Samsung Galaxy S6 - 1778 Words

Samsung Galaxy S6 and Samsung Galaxy S6 Edge are Android smartphones manufactured and marketed by Samsung which is an KOREAN company. The S6 and S6 Edge serve as successors to the Galaxy S5. The smartphones were officially unveiled in a press conference at Mobile World Congress on 1 March 2015. Alongside the S6, Samsung also unveiled the S6 Edge, a variant whose screen is wrapped along the sides of the device; the curvature is usable for several additional features. The Galaxy S6 was released on 10 April 2015 in 20 countries. Although the design of the Galaxy S6 still features some similarities to earlier models, the construction of the device itself was revamped, with a metal unibody frame and glass backing instead of plastic. The†¦show more content†¦The company stated that sales of the two devices had a marginal effect on its profits. External Environment The external factors can be evaluated using PEST because PEST analysis is valuable strategic tool for identifying the business positions, size, growth, feasible route for operations and to classifying the market development and decline. 2.1. Basic Characteristics of the Environment - market definition, size, growth and share Samung galaxy s6 and s6 edge has helped samsung to be at top level in the smartphone market and approximately 12 million sale of samsung s6 and s6 edge mobile in March quarter. The recent Samsung Galaxy S6 launch has held Samsung retain its footing as the world’s leading smartphone player, a new survey has revealed.Market research firm TrendForce has declared its final numbers for the first quarter of 2015, as well as its expectations for Q2.It makes great reading for Samsung, which apparently boasts 27.8 per cent of the smartphone market, with Apple holding firm in second on 19.9 per cent.The market analysts have suggested the South Korean firm’s dominance is largely driven by the new Samsung Galaxy S6 and Samsung Galaxy S6. [The] Galaxy S6 and S6 Edge have greatly captured consumers’ attention in the first quarter, â€Å"The S6 Edge in particular has created a buzz with its main feature – a touch screen that curves to both sides of the phone.†Despite theShow MoreRelatedApple : A Fine Grained Job1384 Words   |  6 Pageshave possession of the smartphone marketplace like they previously did. Competitors such as Samsung and Lenovo have done a better craft of perfecting and preparing toward the variations and growth in technology. Samsung maintained #1 leadership in the global smartphone market with a 24.6% share in 1Q15, 6.3% above Apple. This 9.7% consecutive expansion is mainly because of steady demand for the Galaxy S series flagship smartphones in general, and also heightened shipments of lower-end modelsRead MorePros And Cons Of The Samsung Smartphone1819 Words   |  8 Pagesridiculed for having an outdated phone or a phone that is not an iPhone or Samsung Galaxy. You are not worth their time if you do have these brands to represent you. I took a look at Samsung and noticed there was much to be uncovered. They are falling behind Apple fast. How can this be? What effects does supply and demand have over a product? I will look at the cellphone business in specific. I will note the pros and cons for the Samsung smartphone. I will identify the cost of the product. What were theRead MoreDigi Strategic Management17488 Words   |  70 Pagesservices, while its subsidiaries are DiGi Services Sdn Bhd (property holding, renting of premises) and Djuice.Com Sdn Bhd (others related services). The table below tabulates DiGi.com Berhad Key Employees who are leading DiGi ï‚ » 2,800 strong workforces. Note: 100% indicates wholly-own subsidiaries 1 affectionately called D‟House 4 Ownership As a group, DiGi.Com Berhad is listed on Bursa Malaysia Securities Berhad under the Infrastructure category with a paid-up capital of RM77.75 million and a market